Employee or Contractor? The Risks of Getting It Wrong

Why the Distinction Matters

The classification of a worker as either an employee or an independent contractor drives almost every consequence of the engagement, including:

• Wages and conditions — minimum wage, modern award or enterprise agreement entitlements, overtime, penalty rates, allowances and casual loading;
• Leave — annual leave, personal/carer's leave, compassionate leave, parental leave, long service leave and public holidays;
• Tax — PAYG withholding obligations and fringe benefits tax;
• Superannuation — the superannuation guarantee under the SGA Act 1992 (Cth), including the extended definition in section 12(3);
• Payroll tax — state and territory payroll tax exposure on wages and on contractor payments caught by the deeming provisions;
• Workers compensation — premium calculations and the cost of an uninsured claim if a contractor is later found to be a deemed worker;
• Work health and safety — both regimes impose duties, but the structure differs;
• Unfair dismissal and general protections — employees enjoy a statutory regime that contractors generally do not (subject to recent reforms for employee-like and regulated road transport workers); and
• Vicarious liability and insurance — a business is generally vicariously liable for the acts of its employees, with consequential effect on public liability and professional indemnity cover.

The wrong classification rarely surfaces in isolation. A single dispute typically becomes simultaneous exposure to the Fair Work Ombudsman, the Australian Taxation Office, the State Revenue Office, the workers compensation insurer and the worker themselves.

The Current Test: The Fair Work Act "Whole of Relationship" Approach

For Fair Work Act purposes — which governs minimum wages, leave, unfair dismissal, general protections and sham contracting — the current law has applied since 26 August 2024. Section 15AA of the Fair Work Act 2009 (Cth), inserted by the Fair Work Legislation Amendment (Closing Loopholes No. 2) Act 2024 (Cth), requires the ordinary meaning of "employee" and "employer" to be ascertained by reference to the real substance, practical reality and true nature of the relationship. That requires consideration of the totality of the relationship, including both the parties' contractual rights and obligations and how the relationship actually operates in practice — assessed from the start of the relationship and across its whole course, not just at the moment the contract was signed. For conduct on or after 26 August 2024, a comprehensive written contract does not, by itself, settle how a worker is classified under the Fair Work Act — the Fair Work Commission and courts must also look at what actually happens.

Section 15AA applies to employers within the Fair Work Act's constitutional coverage — constitutionally-covered businesses (relevantly, most corporations) and state-referred national system employers — and only to work performed on or after 26 August 2024. It does not, by itself, change the position for work performed before that date (see below), for a validly opted-out high-income contractor, or for other statutory regimes — tax, superannuation, payroll tax and workers compensation — which are unaffected by section 15AA and continue to apply their own tests.

Sections 15AB–15AD of the Fair Work Act allow a worker who earns above the contractor high income threshold to choose not to be assessed under section 15AA (see Opting Out: High-Income Contractors below). Where a worker validly opts out, their status is instead assessed under the "start of relationship" test, which looks at the relationship as it stood when the contract was made — the contract-focused approach described below.

Where the Contract-Focused Approach Still Applies

Before 26 August 2024, and outside the Fair Work Act entirely, Australian courts generally applied the approach confirmed by two High Court decisions handed down in February 2022 — CFMMEU v Personnel Contracting Pty Ltd [2022] HCA 1 and ZG Operations Australia Pty Ltd v Jamsek [2022] HCA 2. Under that approach, where the parties have reduced their relationship to a comprehensive written contract, the legal character of the relationship is determined by reference to the rights and obligations in that contract, not by a later review of how the relationship played out day-to-day. The familiar multi-factor indicia (control, integration, tools, delegation, payment structure and the like) remain relevant, but are applied to the contract itself.

Three qualifications apply even under this contract-focused approach:

• Sham — the contract is not decisive where it is a sham, in the sense that it does not genuinely reflect the parties' agreement;
• Variation — the contract is not decisive where its terms have been varied by subsequent agreement or conduct;
• Statutory deeming — the contract is not decisive where a statute deems the relationship to be one of employment (for example, section 12(3) of the Superannuation Guarantee (Administration) Act 1992 (Cth)).

Personnel Contracting and Jamsek are not obsolete — they remain the governing authorities for: common-law characterisation generally; Fair Work Act conduct occurring before 26 August 2024; workers who have validly opted out under sections 15AB–15AD; and other statutory regimes that apply their own tests and have not adopted section 15AA, including the superannuation guarantee extended definition (section 12(3) of the Superannuation Guarantee (Administration) Act 1992 (Cth)), state and territory payroll tax "relevant contract" provisions, and workers compensation legislation. Which test governs a given dispute therefore depends on which regime the question arises under — there is no single universal test that answers every question about a worker's status.

Opting Out: High-Income Contractors

A worker who earns more than the contractor high income threshold prescribed under regulation 1.08AA of the Fair Work Regulations 2009 (Cth) (as amended from time to time) can choose not to have their status assessed under the section 15AA whole-of-relationship test. As at 19 July 2026, the Fair Work Commission publishes the threshold for the year starting 1 July 2026 as $190,100, adjusted annually on 1 July — businesses should always confirm the current figure on the Fair Work Commission's website before relying on it. Key features of the opt-out regime:

• A worker who believes they earn above the threshold may give the engaging business a written opt out notice; a business that considers a worker may be an employee under section 15AA and who earns above the threshold may also notify the worker of the option to opt out, and the worker then has 21 days to give an opt out notice;
• Once a valid notice is given, the start of relationship test — the contract-focused approach — applies to the relationship from the date of the notice, instead of the whole-of-relationship test;
• A worker can give only one opt out notice per relationship, but can withdraw it at any time by written notice, after which the whole-of-relationship test applies again from the date of withdrawal; and
• Opting out changes which test determines status — it does not, by itself, guarantee that the worker is or remains a contractor, and the parties should consider the effect of any change in status on accrued entitlements.

Written Contract Versus Practical Reality

A common misunderstanding is that a written contract labelled "Independent Contractor Agreement" insulates the business from reclassification. It does not. The legal character of the relationship is determined by the substance of the rights and obligations — not by the label, the heading on the invoice or the parties' subjective intention.

Where the contract genuinely reflects the relationship, classifications are usually robust. Where the documented terms do not reflect what actually happens — for example, a "right to delegate" that has never been exercised and that both parties understand is theoretical, or a contractor whose work has expanded over time to include managerial duties that were never contemplated in the agreement — the courts can find that the contract has been varied, or that the documented arrangement is a sham, with the result that the substance prevails.

The Multi-Factor Indicia

The traditional multi-factor indicia have not been abolished under either test. Under the Fair Work Act's section 15AA whole-of-relationship test, they are weighed against both the contractual terms and how the relationship actually operates in practice. Under the contract-focused Personnel Contracting/Jamsek approach — which still applies outside the Fair Work Act, before 26 August 2024, and for validly opted-out high-income contractors — the same indicia are applied principally to the contractual rights and obligations rather than to post-contract conduct.

Control and Direction

A right of control over how, when and where the work is done strongly suggests employment. A genuine contractor is typically engaged for an outcome and is free to determine the method of performance, subject to reasonable requirements about safety, deadlines and deliverables. Where the principal directs the daily activities of the worker — sets hours, supervises the manner of work, requires attendance at meetings, dictates dress and conduct — the relationship is on the employment side of the line.

Delegation Rights

A genuine, unfettered right to delegate or subcontract performance to others is a powerful indicator of contractor status. In Personnel Contracting the High Court emphasised that personal service — a requirement that the worker perform the work themselves — is fundamental to an employment relationship. A contractor agreement that grants a right to delegate but, in practice, requires personal service (because the principal vets every potential delegate or because the work cannot realistically be delegated) will rarely save the classification.

Provision of Tools and Equipment

Where the worker provides substantial tools, equipment, vehicles, software and consumables out of their own pocket — and bears the cost of maintaining them — that points towards a contractor relationship. Where the business provides the laptop, software licences, mobile phone, motor vehicle, uniform and workspace, that points towards employment. The threshold is not a single tool but the overall economic burden.

Integration into the Business

Where the worker is integrated into the business — has internal email, business cards, a position in the organisational chart, attends staff meetings, is held out to clients as part of the team and would not realistically be doing the same work for other clients during the same period — the relationship looks like employment. A genuine contractor typically operates an external business presence, including their own ABN, GST registration, business name, marketing and clientele.

Payment Structures

Payment by time (per hour, day or week) for personal attendance tends towards employment. Payment for result (lump sum on completion, milestone payments, project quotes) tends towards contracting. Regular fortnightly or monthly payments that look identical to payroll runs — particularly with the same fixed amount every period — are often a red flag, regardless of whether the worker invoices with an ABN.

Risk and Opportunity for Profit

A genuine contractor bears the commercial risk of loss and has the opportunity to profit from sound management of their own enterprise — through accepting and refusing jobs, pricing, efficiency, hiring others, and managing their own expenses. An employee is paid a wage regardless of how the employer's business performs. The absence of any real risk or upside is a strong indicator that the worker is not genuinely in business for themselves.

Taxation Implications

For income tax purposes, the ATO applies the common law test as refined by Personnel Contracting and Jamsek, supplemented by Taxation Ruling TR 2023/4. The PAYG withholding obligation under Part 2-5 of the Taxation Administration Act 1953 (Cth) attaches to payments to employees and to certain prescribed payments (including voluntary agreements and labour hire). Misclassification typically produces a PAYG withholding shortfall, with penalties and interest.

PAYG Withholding

Where a worker is in substance an employee, the business must withhold PAYG from each payment and remit it to the ATO. Where the business has instead treated the worker as a contractor and paid an ABN-based invoice gross, the ATO can assess the withholding that should have been deducted, together with administrative penalties for failure to withhold and general interest charge. Voluntary disclosure of historical shortfalls almost always reduces exposure.

Superannuation Obligations

Superannuation is the largest single source of reclassification risk in many businesses. Section 12(3) of the Superannuation Guarantee (Administration) Act 1992 (Cth) extends the definition of "employee" to a person who "works under a contract that is wholly or principally for the labour of the person". That is broader than the common law test. A genuine independent contractor at common law can still be a deemed employee for superannuation purposes, with the principal obliged to pay the superannuation guarantee on the labour component of contract payments. Where superannuation has not been paid, the principal becomes liable for the superannuation guarantee charge — the unpaid superannuation plus nominal interest plus an administration component — and the charge is not tax deductible. Liability can extend back many years and personal liability can be imposed on directors under the director penalty notice regime.

Payroll Tax Considerations

Every Australian state and territory imposes payroll tax on wages above an annual threshold and treats certain contractor payments as deemed wages unless an exemption applies — but the drafting of the contractor deeming provisions and the available exemptions differ materially between jurisdictions, and there is no single national exemption list. In Victoria, Division 7 of the Payroll Tax Act 2007 (Vic) contains "relevant contract" provisions that catch many engagements the business would not otherwise have considered "wages". Exemptions recognised in Victoria include services ordinarily required for fewer than 90 days in the financial year, services provided to the public generally, services where the contractor engages two or more people, and certain owner-driver arrangements. The State Revenue Office Victoria has published specific guidance for medical and allied health practices (see ruling PTA-035) following Thomas and Naaz Pty Ltd v Chief Commissioner of State Revenue. Businesses operating outside Victoria must check the equivalent legislation and current rulings in each state or territory in which they engage contractors. Payroll tax audits are one of the most common ways contractor problems are discovered — typically by tracing ABN payments through the general ledger and asking the business to demonstrate that an exemption applies.

Workers Compensation Implications

Workers compensation legislation in each jurisdiction has its own definition of "worker" that frequently extends beyond common law employees. In Victoria, the Workplace Injury Rehabilitation and Compensation Act 2013 (Vic) brings certain contractors and deemed workers within the scheme. A business that has not declared contractor payments to its insurer can face:

• Premium reassessment and recovery of past premiums;
• Penalty premiums for non-disclosure or under-declaration; and
• Direct exposure to an uninsured serious injury claim, including weekly payments, medical and like expenses, lump sums and common law damages.

The cost of one uninsured serious injury claim materially exceeds the cost of any reasonable compliance program.

Sham Contracting

Part 3-1 Division 6 of the Fair Work Act 2009 (Cth) prohibits sham contracting conduct, including:

• Representing an employment relationship as an independent contracting relationship;
• Dismissing or threatening to dismiss an employee to re-engage them as a contractor doing substantially the same work; and
• Making a false statement to persuade an employee to become a contractor.

The reasonableness defence in s 357(2) of the Fair Work Act 2009 (Cth) has also changed. Previously an employer had a defence if it "did not know" and "was not reckless as to whether" the contract was a contract of employment rather than a contract for services. Following the Closing Loopholes reforms, the employer must instead prove it "reasonably believed" the contract was a contract for services, having regard to the size and nature of its enterprise — a materially higher bar than the former knowledge/recklessness standard.

Following the Fair Work Legislation Amendment (Closing Loopholes) Acts 2023 and 2024, civil penalties under the Fair Work Act have increased significantly. As at 19 July 2026, the Fair Work Ombudsman's published penalty tables set the maximum civil penalty per contravention of the sham contracting provisions (and other standard civil remedy provisions) by reference to penalty units, with a higher maximum for a body corporate than for an individual and a reduced maximum for a small business employer. Contraventions found to be "serious contraventions" attract a maximum penalty of up to five times the standard maximum for both individuals and bodies corporate. Businesses should confirm the current dollar figures on the Fair Work Ombudsman's website rather than rely on figures published in this article, as penalty unit values are indexed. These penalties apply in addition to separate exposure for accessories — typically directors, HR managers and external advisers who were knowingly involved. The Fair Work Ombudsman regularly publishes enforcement outcomes in sectors including transport, security, cleaning, hospitality, beauty, professional services and trades.

Back-Pay Exposure

If a contractor is later reclassified as an employee, back-pay exposure typically includes:

• Award or enterprise agreement wages, including overtime, penalty rates, allowances and loadings, generally for up to six years;
• Annual leave, personal/carer's leave, public holidays and long service leave (long service leave in Victoria is governed by the Long Service Leave Act 2018 (Vic) and accrues for both continuous and certain non-continuous employment);
• Superannuation guarantee plus the superannuation guarantee charge, often going back many years;
• PAYG withholding shortfalls, penalties and interest;
• Payroll tax reassessments with interest and penalties;
• Workers compensation premium recoveries and uninsured claim exposure; and
• Fair Work civil penalties for the underpayment itself and for sham contracting where established.

Class actions and group proceedings on behalf of misclassified workers are an established part of the Australian legal landscape. Even where individual entitlements are modest, aggregate exposure across a workforce can be substantial.

Independent Contractor Agreements

A well-drafted independent contractor agreement will typically address:

• Description of services and deliverables, with reference to objective outcomes rather than time spent;
• Price or rate, and whether payment is by result or by time;
• Term, renewal and termination;
• A genuine right of delegation or subcontracting, with corresponding indemnities;
• Provision of tools, equipment, insurances (public liability, professional indemnity, workers compensation for any subcontracted personnel) and licences by the contractor;
• Freedom to provide services to others, subject to reasonable confidentiality and conflicts protections;
• Intellectual property, confidentiality and restraint provisions tailored to the engagement;
• GST treatment, invoicing requirements and indemnity for tax shortfalls;
• Dispute resolution and governing law; and
• Acknowledgements about the nature of the relationship — which are useful, but never determinative.

The agreement is only as strong as the relationship it describes. Before signing, both the business and the contractor should be confident that the document accurately reflects how the engagement will operate in practice.

Contractor Audits

A contractor audit is a structured review of every non-employee engagement in the business. A typical audit involves:

1. Listing every active and recent contractor and the basis of engagement;
2. Obtaining and reviewing the current written agreement (or noting its absence);
3. Mapping the actual conduct of the relationship against the documented terms;
4. Assessing Fair Work Act classification risk under section 15AA (where the business is a constitutionally-covered national system employer and the engagement is on or after 26 August 2024), applying the "start of the relationship" and whole-of-relationship approach — not the contract alone;
5. Separately assessing superannuation guarantee exposure under section 12 of the Superannuation Guarantee (Administration) Act 1992 (Cth), including the extended section 12(3) contract-for-labour deeming (see Dental Corporation Pty Ltd v Moffet [2020] FCAFC 118);
6. Separately assessing PAYG withholding and income tax exposure using the common-law approach as refined by Personnel Contracting and Jamsek;
7. Separately assessing state payroll tax exposure under the contractor deeming provisions and available exemptions in the relevant state or territory (in Victoria, Division 7 of the Payroll Tax Act 2007 (Vic));
8. Separately assessing exposure under the applicable state or territory workers compensation legislation's definition of "worker";
9. Confirming whether contractor payments have been declared for workers compensation premium purposes;
10. Identifying any sham contracting risk; and
11. Producing a remediation plan — usually some combination of contract amendments, conduct adjustments, reclassifications, voluntary disclosures and updated insurance declarations.

Audits are particularly important on acquisition or sale of a business, when a regulator approaches, when industry enforcement activity is occurring and as routine governance every two to three years.

Common Mistakes Employers Make

Recurring mistakes Parke Lawyers sees across Australian small and medium businesses include:

• Treating long-term, full-time, integrated workers as contractors because that is how they were originally engaged;
• Using a generic "contractor agreement" template without tailoring it to the actual relationship;
• Requiring a worker to obtain an ABN as a condition of engagement — a hallmark of arrangements the Fair Work Ombudsman scrutinises closely;
• Failing to pay superannuation to contractors who are deemed employees under section 12(3);
• Failing to declare contractor payments for payroll tax and workers compensation;
• Allowing contractor invoices to mirror payroll runs — same amount, same frequency, no link to deliverables;
• Promoting contractors into supervisory roles without reconsidering classification;
• Failing to obtain advice before terminating a long-term contractor, where unfair dismissal, general protections and sham contracting claims may follow.

Practical Steps to Reduce Risk

Sensible steps for any Australian business engaging contractors include:

1. Mapping every contractor relationship and how it is documented, paid and managed;
2. Obtaining classification advice on each material engagement against the current legal test;
3. Updating contractor agreements so they reflect what actually happens, with genuine delegation rights, output focus and commercial risk;
4. Pricing superannuation, payroll tax and workers compensation correctly into contractor arrangements that are caught by deeming provisions;
5. Stopping any practice of moving a person from "employee" to "contractor" doing substantially the same work;
6. Training managers on what a genuine contractor relationship looks like, including the things they must not require of a contractor;
7. Updating onboarding and procurement processes to require documented classification sign-off before engagement;
8. Conducting a contractor audit periodically and before every acquisition, restructure or sale.

Related Reading on the Information Centre

For practical employer guidance on related issues, see our companion articles on workplace investigations, procedural fairness in workplace investigations, annualised salaries and modern awards and termination for serious misconduct. On the commercial side, our guides on the Franchising Code of Conduct and the Personal Property Securities Register are essential reading for owners of small and medium businesses.

How Parke Lawyers Can Help

Parke Lawyers advises Australian small and medium businesses, professional services firms, medical practices, trades businesses, consultants and start-ups on the full lifecycle of contractor arrangements — classification analysis under the current s 15AA Fair Work Act test and the Personnel Contracting/Jamsek framework for other legal contexts, drafting and reviewing independent contractor agreements, sham contracting risk, superannuation guarantee exposure (including section 12(3) deeming), payroll tax and workers compensation, responding to Fair Work, ATO and state revenue office investigations, defending unfair dismissal and general protections claims arising from terminated contractors, and contractor audits for acquisitions, sales and routine governance. Our employment law and commercial and business law teams work together so a single matter can move seamlessly between classification, contract drafting, regulator response and dispute resolution.

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